For more than a thousand years – from the 8th to the 19th century – Samarkand stood among the world’s most important centres of paper production. From here, caravans carried reams of finely made sheets along the Silk Road. They were highly prized in the Middle East and across Europe, valued as much for their durability as for their beauty.
Samarkand paper is often referred to as silk paper. One explanation links the name to the fibres of mulberry bark traditionally used in its production. Another points to its surface: smooth to the touch, with a gentle sheen that recalls woven silk.
Its exceptional quality, distinctive gloss and refined texture played a significant role in the flourishing of calligraphy and miniature painting. Central to Islamic culture, these arts gained renown far beyond the region – and Samarkand paper formed the quiet foundation beneath many of their finest works.
The History of Samarkand Paper
The arrival of paper in Central Asia is usually dated to the 8th century, when the technique is believed to have travelled westward from China. According to a well-known legend, following military clashes in the mid-8th century, Chinese craftsmen were taken captive near Samarkand and revealed the secrets of papermaking to local artisans.
Modern research, however, suggests a more complex story. Paper appears to have been known in the region earlier than the legend implies. Among the earliest surviving examples are the so-called Old Sogdian Letters, dating from the 4th century AD. Their existence indicates that paper technology reached the territory of present-day Uzbekistan gradually, developing over time rather than arriving in a single dramatic moment.
Between the 9th and 15th centuries, Samarkand paper entered its golden age. It gradually replaced papyrus and parchment, becoming the primary material for manuscripts and miniature painting. Late medieval historians, including Simi Nishapuri (15th century), mentioned Samarkand alongside Damascus and Baghdad as one of the leading centres of paper production for calligraphy.
In terms of quality, Samarkand paper was often regarded as superior to other well-known varieties. Elsewhere, sheets could be coarse, absorbing ink too quickly and causing lines in miniatures or calligraphy to blur or spread. On Samarkand’s polished surface, by contrast, lines remained sharp and controlled, allowing for exceptional precision.
Above all, the paper was valued for its strength. Books created on Samarkand paper have survived for centuries, preserving some of the most important works of Eastern science and literature. Among them are early copies of Avicenna’s The Canon of Medicine. One notable manuscript is now held in the British Library.
Miniatures associated with the school of Kamaliddin Behzad were also frequently created on silk paper. Today, such works can be found in museums in Tashkent and in major collections worldwide, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Historical sources also refer to a miniature painted on Samarkand paper for the poem Eight Paradise Gardens by Amir Khosrow Dehlavi (13th–14th centuries), now kept in the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin.
Loss and Revival of the Tradition
The production of Samarkand paper was always labour-intensive and time-consuming. By the late 19th century, traditional workshops could no longer compete with industrial methods of paper manufacture, and the craft gradually disappeared.
Its revival began at the end of the 20th century. With the support of UNESCO, master craftsmen Zarif and Islam Mukhtarov reconstructed the traditional techniques and established the Konigil-Meros paper factory in Samarkand. Today, they continue to produce silk paper using historical methods and welcome visitors who wish to observe each stage of the process – from pulping the fibres to polishing the finished sheets.
Types and Characteristics of Samarkand Paper
Historically, silk paper was an expensive material and was produced in several grades. The most prized was the thin, lightweight variety known as sultan paper. Slightly less refined was a light yellow silk paper, while the simplest type, called nimkanop, included recycled fibres and had a darker tone. In keeping with modern environmental principles, contemporary Samarkand paper is not bleached and retains its natural warm, yellowish hue.
From the first touch, one of its defining qualities becomes apparent: an unusually smooth surface. After drying, each sheet is carefully polished with special stones, often agate, onyx or mother-of-pearl. This process gives the paper a subtle gloss and allows ink to sit evenly on the surface without bleeding or sinking too deeply into the fibres.
Strength is another distinguishing feature. In terms of durability, Samarkand paper surpasses most ordinary modern paper. Under favourable conditions, manuscripts and artworks created on it can survive for up to 400 years – and sometimes considerably longer.
If you hold a sheet up to the light, you may notice the fine fibres of the mulberry tree and slight variations in density, clear signs of its handmade origin. This delicate, almost living texture forms part of its appeal.
Over time, Samarkand paper ages evenly and gracefully. It does not crumble or flake. Instead, it gradually deepens in tone while retaining the integrity of its structure.
Because each sheet is formed by hand, no two are perfectly identical. The edges may be gently irregular, a quiet reminder of the human craft behind the material.
Modern Uses of Silk Paper
Today, silk paper remains in demand, particularly for the restoration of ancient manuscripts and the creation of traditional oriental miniatures. Artists and conservators in various cities of Uzbekistan continue to work with it.
In Samarkand, the artist Alisher Ochilov has opened a gallery dedicated to miniature painting, where visitors can view and purchase finely detailed works, many created on Samarkand silk paper.
In Bukhara, Davlat Toshev is also widely known. His workshop, Ustoz Shogird, presents numerous examples of miniatures on Bukhara silk paper, which differs slightly in texture and tone from the Samarkand variety. Reproductions of Toshev’s work appear in Rolando Montecalvo’s book Miniature Painting in Uzbekistan (2025).
Contemporary paintings on silk paper can also be seen at the Bekhzad Museum of Oriental Miniature Art in Tashkent, featuring works by artists such as Kamoliddin Abdullayev, Anvar Isroilov, Bakhrom Tokhirav and others – continuing a tradition that once travelled the Silk Road and remains closely associated with the city where it flourished.